Paris, France. Major manufacturer of automata, many with musical movements, circa late 1860s-present. After the 1920s, the spring-operated mechanisms were replaced with electric motors. Founder Jean Roullet’s great-granddaughter Cosette and her husband Georges Bellancourt operate the firm today.

St. Johnsville, NY. See Peerless Piano Player Co.

Manchester, England. Made cardboard strip-operated music boxes, circa late 1890s.

Geneva, Switzerland. Made fine quality cylinder music boxes, 1869-1890.

Düsseldorf, Germany, 1868-1945. Made hand-cranked barrel organs until circa 1900, and book-operated fairground organs thereafter.